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Estuarine circulation

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Estuarine circulation

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{{Definition|title=Estuarine circulation
|definition= Residual flow pattern in an estuary induced by the density difference between seawater and river water. }}

==Introduction==

[[Image:EstuaryIsohalines.jpg|thumb|500px|right|Figure 1: Seawater intrusion in a longitudinal section of a prismatic estuary, represented by isohalines.]]

The classical theory of estuarine circulation was first developed by Hansen and Rattray in 1965 Hansen, D.V. and Rattray M. (1965) Gravitational circulation in straits and estuaries. J. Mar. Res. 23: 104–22, after earlier investigations by D. Pritchard in the St. James river Pritchard, D.W. (1952) Salinity distribution and circulation in the Chesapeake Bay estuaries system. J. Mar. Res. 11: 106–23. Many other authors have subsequently contributed to further verification and refinementGeyer, W.R., Trowbridge. J.H. and Bowen, M.M. (2000) The dynamics of a partially mixed estuary. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 30: 2035–48MacCready, P. (2004) Toward a unified theory of tidally-averaged estuarine salinity structure. Estuaries 27: 561–70.

In the classical theory of estuarine circulation tidal motion does not affect the salinity distribution at the intratidal timescale. The tide moves the salinity field cyclically up and down the estuary without modification. The effect of tidal motion is therefore restricted to turbulence generation at the bed, which enhances momentum dissipation and mixing in and across the bottom boundary layer. Seawater intrusion is only driven by a longitudinal density gradient between water masses of different salinity. The corresponding residual flow is called (often without distinction) estuarine circulation, baroclinic flow or gravitational circulation.

==Notation==

In the following basic notions of the classical theory are presented. We consider a straight prismatic estuary (uniform depth

h

and width

b

); the width is small enough for neglecting the influence of earth rotation (Rossby radius

U/fb << 1

). We use the following notations (see also figure 1):
*

x

is the coordinate along the estuarine axis (

x=0

at the sea boundary,

x=L

at the landward boundary of salt intrusion);
*

u

is the velocity in the

x

-direction,

u(z) = u_R + u'(z) + U \cos \omega t,

where

u_R

is the velocity related to river runoff (river discharge divided by estuarine cross-section),

u'(z)

is the estuarine circulation,

U

is the tidal velocity amplitude and

\omega = 2 \pi / T

is the tidal radial frequency;
*

S=s/s_0

is the ratio of the local salinity

s

and the seawater salinity

s_0 :

S

is related to the density

\rho

by the relation

\rho=\rho_0(1+\beta s_0 S),

where

\rho_0

is the fresh water density and the expansion coefficient

\beta=7.7 \times 10^{-4};

p(z) = g  \int_z^\eta \rho dz

is the hydrostatic pressure;

\eta

is the surface elevation relative to a horizontal plane and

-z

is the depth relative to the surface;
*

K_M

is the eddy viscosity (vertical momentum diffusion coefficient

[m^2/s]

) and

K_S

the eddy diffusivity (vertical salinity diffusion coefficient).

Depth-averaging is denoted by an overbar.

==Assumptions==

The following additional assumptions are made:
* The diffusion coefficients

K_M, K_S

do not depend on the spatial and temporal coordinates

x,z,t

; this means that the classical model is realistic only for continuously stratified estuaries (no layered salinity structure; such estuaries are often called "partially mixed", see figure 1);
* The river flow velocity

u_R

and the tidal velocity amplitude

U

do not depend on the spatial coordinates

x,z

;
* The river flow velocity is much smaller than the tidal velocity,

u_R << U

;
* The water surface variation is much smaller than depth,

\eta << h

; Stokes drift is neglected;
* The vertical flow velocity

w

is neglected;
* Side wall effects are neglected, implying uniformity of all variables in lateral

y

-direction;
* Longitudinal gradients in the velocity

u

are neglected;
* The longitudinal salinity gradient is the same at all depths (

\frac{\partial S}{\partial x}=\frac{\partial \overline S}{\partial x} ).

==Model formulation==

[[Image:VelSalProfiles.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Figure 2: Vertical profiles of estuarine circulation and salinity according to the classical theory.]]

We consider the influence of constant river flow

u_R

on the salinity distribution in a frame moving with the velocity

u_R + U \cos \omega t

; we thus have

u=u'(z).

In the moving frame the only driving force acting on the fluid is the pressure gradient

\frac{\partial p}{\rho \partial x} = g \frac{\partial \eta}{\partial x} + g \beta s_0 \frac{\partial S}{\partial x} .

The fluid acceleration caused by this pressure gradient is compensated by momentum dissipation through turbulent diffusion:

\frac{\partial p}{\rho \partial x} = \frac{\partial }{\partial z} ( K_M \frac{\partial u'}{\partial z}) .

This equation can be solved considering the boundary conditions:

No slip at the bottom:

u'(-h)=0

, no momentum diffusion through the surface:

\frac{du'}{dz}(0)

and no net discharge:

\int_{-h}^0 u' dz =0.

Because the river runoff is constant and the tide cyclic, the salinity distribution should not change with time in the moving frame. However, the estuarine circulation modifies the salinity distribution, because salt advection

u'(z) S(x,z)

has a gradient in

x

-direction. The salt balance is restored by vertical diffusion of salinity:

u' \frac{\partial \overline S}{\partial x}= \frac{\partial }{\partial z} ( K_S \frac{\partial S}{\partial z}) .

This equation can be solved with the boundary conditions:

No salt flux through bottom and surface,

\frac{\partial S}{\partial z}=0

z=-h, z=0 .

The solution of both equations (shown in figure 2) reads:

u'=u_E (1-9 \zeta^2-8 \zeta^3) , \; S=\overline S + S_E (-5+30 \zeta^2-45 \zeta^4-24 \zeta^5), \; \zeta=z/h ,

u_E=\frac{g \beta s_0 h}{48 K_M} \frac{\partial \overline S}{\partial x} , \; S_E=\frac{h^2 u_E}{60 K_S} \frac{\partial \overline S}{\partial x} .

A frequently used estimate of the eddy viscosity is

K_M=hU_*^2/U,

where

U_*=\sqrt{c_D}U

is the friction velocity. We then find that the estuarine circulation

u_E

is related to the Simpson stratification number

Si

u_E=\frac{U}{48} Si , \quad Si=\frac{g}{\rho} \frac{\partial \rho}{\partial x} \frac{h^2}{U_*^2} .

==Salt balance==

The motion in the moving frame is not exactly cyclic; after one tide the moving frame has moved seaward over a distance

T u_R

. In order to prevent flushing of the salinity a net landward salt transport should exist. Many seawater intrusion mechanisms can contribute to landward salt transport, as discussed in [[Seawater intrusion and mixing in estuaries]]. In this case, we assume that estuarine circulation is the primary mechanism for seawater intrusion. This means that the loss of salt content from the estuary due to the net shift of the moving frame,

Thu_rS

, should be compensated by salt transport related to estuarine circulation:

hu_RS=\int_{-h}^0 u'(z)S(z) dz .

Evaluation of the integral gives

S=L^3 (\frac{\partial \overline S}{\partial x})^3 , \; L=0.024 h (\frac{c}{u_R})^{1/3} \frac{hc}{(K_S K_M^2)^{1/3}} , \; c=\sqrt{\beta s_0 gh} .

L

is an estimate for the length of the seawater intrusion due to estuarine circulation;

c

is the internal wave speed in a fresh water layer of depth

h

overlying seawater. By approximating

\frac{\partial \overline S}{\partial x} \approx -\frac{1}{L}

the maximum estuarine circulation velocity can be written as

u_E=0.87(u_R c^2 \frac{K_S}{K_M})^{1/3}.

In general

u_E>>u_R .

==Stratification==

[[Image:EstuarineCirculation.jpg|thumb|500px|right|Figure 3: Schematic representation of estuarine circulation in a prismatic channel.]]

Estuarine circulation corresponds to a net landward flow in a near bottom layer of thickness

h_2 \approx 0.58 h

and a net seaward flow of the same order in the upper layer, see figure 3. By calling

s_1,Q_1

the average salinity and average discharge in the upper layer and

s_2,Q_2

the average salinity and discharge in the bottom layer, we can determine the average salinity difference

\Delta s = s_2-s_1

("stratification") from the condition of net zero salt transport:

s_1Q_1 + s_2Q_2 =0 , \quad Q_1 \approx -Q_2 - hbu_R \approx b \int_{-h_2}^0 u'dz \approx -0.26hu_E .

This gives

\Delta s / s \approx 4.4 u_R / u_E .

The "bulk" Richardson number

Ri= \Delta \rho gh / U^2

is a measure for the degree of stratification in an estuary. For small Richardson numbers (typically smaller than 0.25) the diffusion coefficients are not strongly influenced by vertical density gradients. In this case one may approximate

K_M \approx K_S \approx K = c_D hU.

The friction coefficient

c_D

is of the order of 0.002. Substitution in the expressions for

u_E, \Delta s , L

yields

u_E=0.87 (u_R c^2)^{1/3} , \; \frac{\Delta s}{s} = 4.4 (\frac{u_R}{c})^{2/3} , L = \frac{0.024}{c_D} h (\frac{c}{u_R})^{1/3} \frac{c}{U} .

The estuarine circulation and the stratification increase with increasing river runoff; they do not depend on the tidal velocity.

In case of strong (but continuous) stratification the Richardson number is larger than 1. In this case the diffusion coefficients

K_M, K_S

depend on

Ri

and are strongly reduced following the relations of Munk-Anderson Munk, W.H. and Anderson, E.R. (1948). Notes on the theory of the thermocline. J. Marine Res. 7: 276-295

K_M = K(1+10Ri)^{-1/2} \approx 0.316 K Ri^{-1/2} , \; K_S = K (1+3.3Ri)^{-3/2} \approx 0.167 K Ri^{-3/2} , \; Ri=(\frac{c}{U})^2 \frac{\Delta s}{s} .

Substitution of these approximations yields

u_E=0.3 U , \;  \frac{\Delta s}{s} = 13 \frac{u_R}{U} , \; L = \frac{0.8}{c_D} h (\frac{c}{U})^3 (\frac{u_R}{U})^{1/2}  .

With an increase of runoff

u_R

the estuarine circulation

u_E

remains unchanged, whereas the intrusion length

L

increases. This counterintuitive result is due to the strong increase of stratification with increasing runoff.

==Observations==

The assumption that seawater intrusion is due only to gravitational circulation strongly limits the salt intrusion length

L.

The previous formulas indicate for realistic values

U=1 m/s, u_R=0.05 m/s, c_D=0.001-0.003

an intrusion length

L \approx 2-5 km.

Observed salt intrusion lengths are typically several times larger (see [[Seawater intrusion and mixing in estuaries]]). This reduces the value of the estuarine circulation

u_E

by a similar factor, according to the classical theory. However, field observations indicate that residual circulation can be considerable (order 10 cm/s), even in the case of small longitudinal and vertical salinity gradients. Reasons will be discussed is the following paragraph.

==Asymmetric Tidal Mixing==

[[Image:EbbFloodProfiles.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Figure 4: Schematic representation of vertical profiles of salinity (right) and along-channel velocity (left) for flood and ebb.]]

In 1986, Van Aken Van Aken, H. M. (1986). The onset of seasonal stratification in shelf seas due to differential advection in the presence of a salinity gradient. Cont. Shelf Res. 5: 475-485 explained the onset of seasonal stratification in the North Sea by the process of tidal advection of surface water with lower density, related to the presence of strong salinity gradients. A few years later, Simpson et al. Simpson, J.H., Brown, J., Matthews, J.and Allen, G. (1990) Tidal straining, density currents, and stirring in the control of estuarine stratification. Estuaries 13: 125-132 observed and modeled tidal variation of stratification in Liverpool Bay by this differential advection mechanism, which they called "tidal straining". Numerical model studies by Jay and Musiak Jay, D.A. and Musiak, J.D. (1996) Internal tidal asymmetry in channel flows: origins and consequences. In Mixing Processes in Estuaries and Coastal Seas, ed. C Pattiaratchi, Am. Geophys. Union, Washington: 211–49 and Scott Scott, C.F. (1994) A numerical study of the interaction of tidal oscillations and nonlinearities in an estuary. Estuarine Coast. Shelf Sci. 39: 477–96 revealed that tidal straining can strongly influence estuarine circulation. When during flood high salinity seawater enters the estuary, the less dense estuarine surface water is repulsed. Vertical salinity stratification is therefore reduced, a process further strengthened in some cases by convective overturning Prandle, D. (2004) Saline intrusion in partially mixed estuaries. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 59: 385-397. For sufficiently weak stratification, the surface flow exchanges momentum with the near-bottom flow, which is accelerated in upstream direction. During ebb, the tidal flow restores stratification, by advecting less dense estuarine waters seaward over the denser near-bottom waters. The momentum exchange between surface and near-bottom water is now reduced; seaward tidal flow is concentrated near the surface, see figure 4. The net effect is an enhancement of residual landward near-bottom flow, as shown by numerical experiments Burchard, H. and Baumert, H. (1998) The formation of estuarine turbidity maxima due to density effects in the salt wedge. A hydrodynamic process study. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 28: 209–321.

Enhancement of estuarine circulation by asymmetric tidal mixing only occurs in situations of weak stratification. In case of strong stratification (weak tides, high river runoff) momentum exchange between surface and near-bottom water hardly occurs (see [[Salt wedge estuaries]]). The major effect of weak tides in the latter case is an increase of eddy viscosity in the bottom layer, which reduces gravitational circulation Cheng P., De Swart, H.E. and Valle-Levinson, A. (2013) Role of asymmetric tidal mixing in the subtidal dynamics of narrow estuaries. J. Geophys. Res. 118: 2623–2639. Enhancement of estuarine circulation by asymmetric tidal mixing is strongest for small Simpson numbers (typically

Ri < 1

) and periodic or weak stratification.

[[Image:RdamWaterwayVelSal.jpg|thumb|600px|right|Figure 5: Velocity and salinity distributions in a longitudinal section of Rotterdam Waterway on 9 September 1967 at different tidal phases: at the end of flood tide (H.S.W.=high slack water), during maximum ebb flow, at the end of ebb tide (L.W.S.-low slack water) and during maximum flood flow. The local salinity maximum halfway the estuary at maximum ebb is related to outflow of the Old Meuse tributary. Characteristics of Rotterdam Waterway are: approximately prismatic channel, width 300 m, depth 15 m, tidal range 2 m, maximum depth-averaged tidal velocity 1 m/s. ]]

Figure 5 illustrates asymmetric tidal mixing in Rotterdam Waterway. The velocity and salinity profiles were measured on 9 September 1967 at an estimated net discharge of about 1000 m3/s (runoff velocity

u_R \approx 0.2 m/s

). Characteristic values of the Richardson and Simpson numbers are

Ri \approx 1.8, Si \approx 0.5 .

The sections at maximum ebb and maximum flood flow display asymmetry between near-bottom flow velocities; near-bottom velocities are substantially higher during flood than during ebb (as schematically depicted in figure 4). The sections at H.S.W. and L.S.W. show asymmetry in stratification: at the end of the flood the water column is less stratified than at the end of the ebb. Another survey in Rotterdam Waterway was conducted by De Nijs et al. in 2006 at higher river discharge (stronger stratification) De Nijs, M.A.J., Pietrzak, J.D. and Winterwerp, J.C.(2011) Advection of the Salt Wedge and Evolution of the Internal Flow Structure in the Rotterdam Waterway. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 41: 3-27. These authors show that in Rotterdam Waterway asymmetry in tidal mixing is primarily related to asymmetry of the tide at the mouth (faster tidal rise than tidal fall, which enhances flood currents over ebb currents), more than to differential advection. This is consistent with the fast thickening of the bottom boundary layer during flood, caused by strong bed-generated turbulence. A similar behaviour was observed in the Hudson estuary Nepf, H.M. and Geyer, W.R. (1996) Intratidal variations in stratification and mixing in the Hudson estuary. J. Geophys. Res. 101: 12079-12086.

==Lateral estuarine circulation==

[[Image:LateralEstCirc.jpg|thumb|1000px|right|Figure 6: Lateral density-driven exchange flow related to cross-channel depth variation. Panel a: Cross-sectional salinity distribution and flow pattern shortly before the end of the flood phase. Higher salinity is indicated by darker blue. Panel b: The same in the last phase of ebb. The strength of along-channel flood flow in different parts of the cross-section is indicated by crossed circles; the strength of ebb flow by dotted circles. The lateral exchange flow influences the strength and the distribution of longitudinal estuarine circulation by altering the vertical distribution of along-channel flood and ebb flow. Panel c: Residual flow pattern (estuarine circulation). The crossed circle indicates up-estuary residual flow and the dotted circles down-estuary residual flow.]]

In natural estuaries the depth decreases towards the lateral boundaries (in a meander the depth decreases towards the inner channel bend). Tidal velocities are lower near the channel banks than at the channel centre. The salinity front is therefore not advected at the same speed at different lateral locations. This results in lateral salinity gradients. During flood (especially shortly before the end of the flood phase) the salinity is higher at the channel centre than near the channel banks. During ebb the situation is reversed; near the surface, the salinity at the channel centre is lower than near the channel banks. The lateral salinity gradients, related to differential tidal salinity advection, induce a baroclinic (density-driven) current. This current has a vertical structure; during flood it is directed near the bottom toward the channel banks and toward the channel centre near the surface, see figure 6. The resulting flow convergence at the channel centre is often visible in the field by a scum line following the channel axis Nunes, R.A. and Simpson, J.H. (1985) Axial Convergence in a Well-mixed Estuary. Coastal and Shelf Science 20: 637-649. During ebb the lateral exchange flow is divergent at the surface and convergent near the bottom. This lateral baroclinic exchange flow has important consequences for longitudinal dispersion in natural estuaries, as first pointed out by R. Smith Smith, R. (1976) Longitudinal dispersion of a buoyant contaminant in a shallow channel. J. Fluid Mech. 78: 677–88, see also [[Seawater intrusion and mixing in estuaries]].

Lateral exchange flows also influence estuarine circulation. Downwelling flow at the channel axis during flood transports momentum down the vertical; surface flow is decelerated and near bottom flow accelerated in up-estuary direction. During ebb, vertical momentum transport reduces turbulent momentum dissipation by reducing the vertical shear of the tidal current. This also favours the baroclinic flow component Burchard, H. and Schuttelaars, H.H. (2012) Analysis of Tidal Straining as Driver for Estuarine Circulation in Well-Mixed Estuaries. J. Phys. Oceanograph. 42: 261-271. Lateral baroclinic exchange flow therefore enhances estuarine circulation. It also induces an a net downstream flow component in the shallower parts of the cross-section (lateral inflow of down-estuary momentum from the channel centre during ebb, outflow of up-estuary momentum toward the channel centre during flood, see figure 6); this flow component enhances the down-estuary flow component related to river runoff Burchard, H., Hetland, R.D., Schulz, E. and Schuttelaars, H.H. (2011)Drivers of Residual Estuarine Circulation in Tidally Energetic Estuaries: Straight and Irrotational Channels with Parabolic Cross Section. J.Phys.Oceanogr. 41: 548-570.

==Other lateral circulation patterns==

[[Image:CoriolisEstCirc.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Figure 7: Influence of earth rotation on estuarine circulation. The up-estuary residual flow (crossed circles) is shifted toward the right channel bank (looking in up-estuary direction, northern hemisphere) and the down-estuary residual flow (dotted circles) toward the left bank. ]]

Several mechanisms can alter the symmetric flow pattern of figure 6. In wide estuaries the symmetry is broken by earth rotation. Currents are deviated to the right on the northern hemisphere and to the left on the southern hemisphere (see [[Coriolis acceleration]]). Looking in up-estuary direction, flood currents are concentrated at the right side of a straight tidal channel and ebb currents at the left side (northern hemisphere). Estuarine circulation is influenced by earth rotation in a similar way Huijts, K.M.H., Schuttelaars, B.H.M., De Swart, H.E. and Friedrichs, C.T. (2009) Analytical study of the transverse distribution of along-channel and transverse residual flows in tidal estuaries. Continental Shelf Res. 29: 89-100: the residual up-estuary flow is shifted to the right bank and the down-estuary flow to the left bank, see figure 7. The mean cross-sectional salinity distribution is tilted accordingly.

Channel meandering induces transverse circulation, directed to the inner channel bend in the lower part of the vertical and to the outer bend near the surface. The spiraling tidal flow modifies the salinity distribution and the density-driven longitudinal residual flow in a similar way as earth rotation when the tidal flow follows a channel meander with the inner channel bend at the right bank Basdurak, N.B. and Valle-Levinson, A. (2013) Tidal variability of lateral advection in a coastal plain estuary. Continental Shelf Res. 61–62: 85–97. For an inner channel bend at the left bank the picture is mirrored; in this case the effects of channel meandering and earth rotation are opposite. Channel bends and other topographic structures (bars, shoals) generate longitudinal circulating flow patterns in estuaries also in the absence of density differences. These horizontal topographically induced flow circulations are often stronger than horizontal estuarine circulation generated by density gradients. However, residual flow circulation in the longitudinal-vertical plane is mainly due to the density difference between seawater and river water.

==Consequence of estuarine circulation==

Estuarine circulation is highly relevant for sedimentation. The up-estuary near-bottom flow captures a substantial part of the downstream flux of fluvial sediment, and moves this sediment back toward the tip of the salt intrusion zone. The up-estuary near-bottom flow contributes also to import of marine sediment into the estuary. This sediment settles on the bed during periods of neap tide and slack water. It is resuspended in periods of high tidal currents, leading to a strong increase in turbidity. Decomposition of organic material in the high turbidity zone can cause oxygen depletion, especially in the lower part of the vertical where mixing with oxygen-rich surface water is inhibited by stratification. However, estuarine circulation is not the only cause of up-estuary sediment transport. Many field and model investigations show that tidal asymmetry due to non-linear tidal propagation in shallow water (leading to stronger flood currents than ebb currents and longer high-water slack periods than low-water slack periods) is often a more important mechanism.

==Related articles==

[[Salt wedge estuaries]]

[[Seawater intrusion and mixing in estuaries]]

[[Coriolis acceleration]]

==References==

{{author
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|AuthorName=Dronkers J}}

[[Category:Estuaries and tidal rivers]]
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File:RdamWaterwayVelSal.jpg

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Dronkers J uploaded "File:RdamWaterwayVelSal.jpg" Velocity and salinity distributions in a longitudinal section of Rotterdam Waterway on 9 September 1967 at different tidal phases: at the end of flood tide (H.S.W.=high slack water), during maximum ebb flow, at the end of ebb tide (L.W.S.-low slack wat...

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Dronkers J uploaded "File:EstuaryIsohalines.jpg" Seawater intrusion in a longitudinal section of a prismatic estuary, represented by isohalines.

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Dronkers J uploaded "File:LateralEstCirc.jpg" Lateral density-driven exchange flow related to cross-channel depth variation.

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Dronkers J uploaded "File:CoriolisEstCirc.jpg" Influence of earth rotation on estuarine circulation.

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The [http://www.compendiumkustenzee.be/en Compendium for Coast and Sea] is an integrated knowledge document about the socio-economic, environmental and institutional aspects of the coast and sea in Flanders and Belgium. As such, it constitutes a one-stop shop for data and information from the Flemish and Belgian marine and maritime research community and experts. The Compendium for Coast and Sea is an initiative of the Flanders Marine Institute ([http://www.vliz.be/ VLIZ]) and was developed in close collaboration with experts from the research community, government, industry and civil society organisations. The first version of the Compendium was launched in 2013, a second edition was presented in 2015.

== Context ==

The development of the [[Integrated Maritime Policy for the European Union|European Integrated Maritime Policy]] (COM(2007)575) with its [[European Marine Strategy Framework Directive|Marine Strategy Framework Directive]] (2008/56/EG), Maritime Spatial Planning Directive (2014/89/EU) and Blue Growth Strategy (COM(2012)494), has significantly increased the need for scientifically-underpinned and up-to-date information in the marine and maritime field. In this context, an integrated approach, which addresses environmental and ecological research, as well as socio-cultural, economic and institutional aspects of the marine system, is indispensable. Although such information is partially available, it is generally highly fragmented, sector-specific or poorly accessible. The Compendium for Coast and Sea aggregates the disperse information and data from the Flemish and Belgian marine and maritime research community and experts. Furthermore, it provides an overview of the relevant – often sectoral – policy frameworks (including international and European legislation) which apply to marine and maritime activities in the Belgian part of the North Sea. In line with the Open Access policy, the cited references are made publicly available.

== Objectives and products ==

The Compendium for Coast and Sea has a three-fold objective:
* Provide a summary of the scientific knowledge regarding the different user functions on the Belgian part of the North Sea;
* Create an overview of the legislative and policy framework applicable for marine and maritime activities in the Belgian part of the North Sea;
* Map the Belgian marine research landscape (expertise, capacity, research infrastructure, etc.).

The integrated and multidisciplinary character of the Compendium aims to increase the communication within the broad network of marine scientists and experts (from industry, policy, etc.) who are professionally involved with the coast and the sea. Furthermore, it increases the visibility and accessibility of marine research.
In short, the Compendium for Coast and Sea consists of an extensive background document [http://www.compendiumkustenzee.be/en/integrated-marine-information-system?module=ref&refid=251253 Pirlet, H.; Verleye, T.; Lescrauwaet, A.-K.; Mees, J. (Ed.) (2015). Compendium for Coast and Sea 2015: An integrated knowledge document about the socio-economic, environmental and institutional aspects of the coast and sea in Flanders and Belgium. Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ): Oostende. ISBN 978-94-92043-19-1. 252 pp.] which describes the marine scientific landscape (Chapter 1) and provides a summary of the knowledge on different user functions of the Belgian coast, sea and the adjacent Scheldt Estuary (Chapter 2). Furthermore, a number of derived communication products with a specific focus were developed:

* A brochure with an overview of the expertise of the Belgian marine research groups [http://www.compendiumkustenzee.be/en/integrated-marine-information-system?module=ref&refid=250716 Mees, J.; Verleye, T.J.; Pirlet, H.; Lescrauwaet, A.-K.; Janssen, C. (Ed.) (2015). Belgian Marine Research - an overview. Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ): Oostende. ISBN 978-94-920431-2-2. 146 pp.]
* A catalogue with an overview of the available marine research infrastructure [http://www.compendiumkustenzee.be/en/integrated-marine-information-system?module=ref&refid=250717 Pirlet, H.; Verleye, T.J.; Lescrauwaet, A.-K.; Mees, J. (Ed.) (2015). Catalogue ‘Marine research infrastructure. Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ): Oostende. ISBN 978-94-920431-5-3. 129 pp.]
* A guide on funding instruments for marine research and innovation projects [http://www.compendiumkustenzee.be/en/integrated-marine-information-system?module=ref&refid=244901 Pirlet, H.; Verleye, T.; Lescrauwaet, A.-K.; Mees, J. (2015). Wegwijzer 'Financieringsinstrumenten voor Mariene Onderzoeks- en Innovatieprojecten'. Vlaams Instituut voor de Zee (VLIZ): Oostende. ISBN 978-94-920430-4-7. 42 pp.]
* A manual with the most pertinent marine policy and legal instruments which apply to the Belgian part of the North Sea [http://www.compendiumkustenzee.be/en/integrated-marine-information-system?module=ref&refid=251201 Verleye, T.; Pirlet, H.; Lescrauwaet, A.-K.; Maes, F.; Mees, J. (Ed.) (2015). Manual: Marine policy instruments and legislation for the Belgian part of the North Sea 2015. Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ): Oostende. ISBN 978-94-920431-4-6. 128 pp.]

All these products can be interactively consulted on the website www.compendiumcoastandsea.be http://www.compendiumcoastandsea.be:

== The marine and maritime research landscape in Belgium ==

The Compendium provides an overview of the Belgian marine research community in a global, European and local context. A semi-automated methodology was developed in order to quantitatively map the marine research landscape in Flanders and Belgium in terms of research capacity, research resources, knowledge output, research infrastructure, etc. The mapping exercise feeds into derived products such as the brochure , which provides detailed information on the expertise within each individual Belgian marine research group, and the catalogue , which discloses the marine research infrastructure. Funding opportunities for marine research and innovation projects are included in the guide on funding instruments for marine research and innovation projects .

== Use of the coast and sea ==

The Belgian part of the North Sea is one of the most intensively used seas in the world. Many activities take place in the Belgian part of the North Sea or along its coastal zone. The Compendium for Coast and Sea aggregates and discloses the fragmented scientific information and policy frameworks of the different user functions in thematic chapters, using a fixed template. The aspects dealt with include: policy context, spatial use, societal interest (socio-economic information), impact (environmental impact as well as impact on other activities) and sustainable use.
The following thematic chapters were elaborated in the Compendium for Coast and Sea (version 2015):
# Nature and environment
# Maritime transport, shipping and ports
# Dredging and dumping
# Sand and gravel extraction
# Energy (including cables and pipelines)
# Fisheries
# Aquaculture
# Agriculture
# Maritime and coastal heritage
# Social and economic environment
# Tourism and recreation
# Safety against flooding
# Military use

The Compendium also includes an integrated chapter on the [[Scheldt Estuary]] and on marine data and information (data sources and data systems).

== Process ==

The Compendium for Coast and Sea is an initiative of Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ) which also hosts the secretariat that coordinates the activities and takes on most of the work. The mission, goals and end products are overseen by an expert group with members from the research community, government, industry and civil society organisations. The thematic chapters of the Compendium for Coast and Sea are elaborated in cooperation with a broad network of coauthors and reviewers. As such, the Compendium can be regarded as a collective effort of the Belgian marine and maritime community.
The first version of the Compendium for Coast and Sea was launched in 2013, a second edition was published in 2015. The figures of the thematic chapters are continuously updated by the Compendium secretariat. An in-depth actualisation of the Compendium is carried out in collaboration with the relevant experts with a larger interval.

== References ==

{{Authorwithoutaccount
|AuthorID=18420
|AuthorFullName=Verleye, Thomas
}}

[[Category:Atmospheric processes, air and climate]]
[[Category:Biodiversity and habitat loss]]
[[Category:Biological processes and organisms]]
[[Category:Chemical ecology]]
[[Category:Climate change and global warming]]
[[Category:Coastal agriculture]]
[[Category:Coastal and marine aquaculture]]
[[Category:Coastal and marine energy production]]
[[Category:Coastal and marine fisheries]]
[[Category:Coastal and marine industry]]
[[Category:Coastal and marine information and knowledge management]]
[[Category:Coastal and marine military use]]
[[Category:Coastal and marine mineral extraction]]
[[Category:Coastal and marine pollution]]
[[Category:Coastal and marine tourism and leisure]]
[[Category:Coastal defence]]
[[Category:Coastal flooding]]
[[Category:Coastal heritage]]
[[Category:Coastal ports]]
[[Category:Coastal urban development]]
[[Category:Coral reefs/tropical oceans]]
[[Category:Ecological processes and ecosystems]]
[[Category:Estuaries and tidal rivers]]
[[Category:Geological processes, soil and minerals]]
[[Category:Geomorphological processes and natural coastal features]]
[[Category:Health and safety in coastal and marine areas]]
[[Category:Hydrodynamics]]
[[Category:Hydrological processes and water]]
[[Category:Integrated coastal zone management]]
[[Category:Land and ocean interactions]]
[[Category:Mangroves]]
[[Category:Marine Biodiversity]]
[[Category:Maritime transportation]]
[[Category:Open oceans/temperate oceans]]
[[Category:Overpopulation in coastal zones]]
[[Category:Policy and decision making in coastal management]]
[[Category:Poverty and inequality in coastal zones]]
[[Category:Practice, projects and case studies in coastal management]]
[[Category:Regulations in coastal management]]
[[Category:Research, science and innovation in coastal management]]
[[Category:Resource depletion and degradation]]
[[Category:Sand dunes]]
[[Category:Sea ice ecosystems]]
[[Category:Seagrass_meadows]]
[[Category:Spatial planning in coastal and marine zones]]
[[Category:Sub-littoral_sediment_(seabed)]]

Template:Authorwithoutaccount

2016-04-08T13:31:10Z

Historiek van de Belgische oesterkweek

2016-04-06T14:18:01Z

@@ Line 218: / Line 218: @@
 * [[Mud]]
 * [[Flocculation]]
 * [[Coast erosion]]
 * [[Types and background of coastal erosion]]

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:56, 12 April 2016
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		+	test
		+

	'''Biological_Descriptors''': {{#ask: [[collection::Traits:Biological_Descriptors]]		'''Biological_Descriptors''': {{#ask: [[collection::Traits:Biological_Descriptors]]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 ==Introduction==
-Estuaries are generally defined as semi-enclosed transition zones between river and sea. The intrusion of seawater in estuaries is mainly due to tides and buoyancy (related to the density difference between seawater and river water). Seawater intrusion in estuaries is an important phenomenon to man and nature: it limits fresh water availability for human and agricultural use and it determines the type of habitats and species that can develop in an estuarine environment. Besides, density driven currents and salinity play a role in estuarine turbidity and sedimentation processes.
+Estuaries are generally defined as semi-enclosed transition zones between river and sea. The intrusion of seawater in estuaries is mainly due to tides and buoyancy (related to the density difference between seawater and river water, see [[Estuarine circulation]]). Seawater intrusion in estuaries is an important phenomenon to man and nature: it limits fresh water availability for human and agricultural use and it determines the type of habitats and species that can develop in an estuarine environment. Besides, density driven currents and salinity play a role in estuarine turbidity and sedimentation processes.
 We describe in this article the physical processes involved in seawater intrusion and mixing in estuaries and explain some simple methods for deriving quantitative estimates.
@@ Line 75: / Line 75: @@
 For the dispersion coefficient related to lateral horizontal residual circulation a similar formula can be derived, replacing in the expression for  $K_x$  everywhere  $z$  by  $y$ .
-Estuarine circulation is an important seawater intrusion mechanism in estuaries with a single deep (dredged) channel and small to moderate tide. Lateral circulations are important in wide natural estuaries with a complex geometry (meandering main channel , secondary channels, channel bars and tidal flats) and strong tides. The dominance of lateral circulations for seawater intrusion relative to vertical circulations appears in the analytical expression of  $K_x$  through the much larger lateral mixing time  $T_y$  compared to the vertical mixing time   $T_z$ . The presence of distinct ebb and flood channels is a major cause of lateral circulation in wide estuaries, see for example figure 2. However, density gradients related to seawater intrusion also produce lateral circulations, which contribute often even more to longitudinal dispersion than the vertical density-induced circulation Smith, R. 1980. Buoyance effects upon longitudinal dispersion in wide well-mixed estuaries. Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. London A 296: 467-496.
+Estuarine circulation is an important seawater intrusion mechanism in estuaries with a single deep (dredged) channel and small to moderate tide. Lateral circulations are important in wide natural estuaries with a complex geometry (meandering main channel , secondary channels, channel bars and tidal flats) and strong tides. The dominance of lateral circulations for seawater intrusion relative to vertical circulations appears in the analytical expression of  $K_x$  through the much larger lateral mixing time  $T_y$  compared to the vertical mixing time   $T_z$ . The presence of distinct ebb and flood channels is a major cause of lateral circulation in wide estuaries, see for example figure 2. However, density gradients related to seawater intrusion also produce lateral circulations (see [[Estuarine circulation]]), which contribute often even more to longitudinal dispersion than the vertical density-induced circulation Smith, R. 1980. Buoyance effects upon longitudinal dispersion in wide well-mixed estuaries. Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. London A 296: 467-496.
 [[Image:WScirculations.JPG|thumb|800px|center|Figure 2: Circulation cells in the Western Scheldt related to ebb- and flood-dominated channels.]]
@@ Line 415: / Line 415: @@
 ==Related articles==
 [[Salt wedge estuaries]]

@@ Line 7: / Line 7: @@
 In estuaries where tidal motion is very weak or absent, seawater intrudes in the form of a wedge along the bottom, as a consequence of the higher density of seawater compared to fresh water. The intrusion length depends essentially on two parameters: river flow velocity  $v$  and water depth  $h$ .  This article deals with the hydrodynamic balances that determine the salt wedge, illustrated by a model for a prismatic estuary (uniform depth and width). We follow the derivation first given by Schijf and Schönfeld in 1953 Schijf, J.B., Schönfeld, J.C. (1953) Theoretical considerations on the motion of salt and fresh water. Proceedings of the 5th I.A.H.R. Congress, 321–333.
-In most estuaries, seawater intrusion is strongly influenced by tidal motion. Even in microtidal estuaries this influence is often significant Geyer, R.W. and Farmer, D.H. (1989) Tide-induced variation of the dynamics of a salt wedge estuary. J. Phys. Oceanography 19: 1060-1072. In some cases, especially in the Mediterranean Sea, tides are so small that their influence on seawater intrusion is minor. This article focuses on such situations.
+In most estuaries, seawater intrusion is strongly influenced by tidal motion (see [[Estuarine circulation]]). Even in microtidal estuaries this influence is often significant Geyer, R.W. and Farmer, D.H. (1989) Tide-induced variation of the dynamics of a salt wedge estuary. J. Phys. Oceanography 19: 1060-1072. In some cases, especially in the Mediterranean Sea, tides are so small that their influence on seawater intrusion is minor. This article focuses on such situations.
 ==Hydrodynamic balance==
@@ Line 64: / Line 64: @@
 [[Seawater intrusion and mixing in estuaries]]
 ==References==

@@ Line 64: / Line 64: @@
 {{author
 |AuthorID=7075
-|AuthorFullName=Lescrauwaet A.-K.
+|AuthorFullName=Lescrauwaet, A.-K.
 |AuthorName=Ann-Katrien Lescrauwaet}}
 [[Category:PEGASO]]
 [[Category:Principles and concepts in integrated coastal zone management]]

@@ Line 142: / Line 142: @@
 ==Consequence of estuarine circulation==
-Estuarine circulation is highly relevant for sedimentation. The up-estuary near-bottom flow captures a substantial part of the downstream flux of fluvial sediment, and moves this sediment back toward the tip of the salt intrusion zone. The up-estuary near-bottom flow contributes also to import of marine sediment into the estuary. This sediment settles on the bed during periods of neap tide and slack water. It is resuspended in periods of high tidal currents, leading to a strong increase in turbidity. Decomposition of organic material in the high turbidity zone can cause oxygen depletion, especially in the lower part of the vertical where mixing with oxygen-rich surface water is inhibited by stratification. However, estuarine circulation is not the only cause of up-estuary sediment transport. Many field and model investigations show that tidal asymmetry due to non-linear tidal propagation in shallow water (leading to stronger flood currents than ebb currents and longer high-water slack periods than low-water slack periods) is often a more important mechanism.
+Estuarine circulation is highly relevant for transport of fine sediments and sedimentation (see [[Dynamics of mud transport]]). The up-estuary near-bottom flow captures a substantial part of the downstream flux of fluvial sediment, and moves this sediment back toward the tip of the salt intrusion zone. The up-estuary near-bottom flow contributes also to import of marine sediment into the estuary. This sediment settles on the bed during periods of neap tide and slack water. It is resuspended in periods of high tidal currents, leading to a strong increase in turbidity. Decomposition of organic material in the high turbidity zone can cause oxygen depletion, especially in the lower part of the vertical where mixing with oxygen-rich surface water is inhibited by stratification. However, estuarine circulation is not the only cause of up-estuary sediment transport. Many field and model investigations show that tidal asymmetry due to non-linear tidal propagation in shallow water (leading to stronger flood currents than ebb currents and longer high-water slack periods than low-water slack periods) is often a more important mechanism.
 ==Related articles==
@@ Line 151: / Line 151: @@
 [[Coriolis acceleration]]
 ==References==

← Older revision	Revision as of 14:40, 12 April 2016
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	+
	+	{{author
	+	\|AuthorID=120
	+	\|AuthorFullName=Job Dronkers
	+	\|AuthorName=Dronkers J}}
	+
	+	[[Category:Estuaries and tidal rivers]]
	+	[[Category:Hydrodynamics]]
	+	[[Category:Land and ocean interactions]]

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		+	----

		+	* For other articles by this author see [[:Category:Articles by {{{AuthorFullName1}}}]]
		+	* For other articles by this author see [[:Category:Articles by {{{AuthorFullName2}}}]]
		+	* For other articles by this author see [[:Category:Articles by {{{AuthorFullName3}}}]]
		+	* For other articles by this author see [[:Category:Articles by {{{AuthorFullName4}}}]]
	\|}		\|}

		+
		+	[[Category:Articles by {{{AuthorFullName1}}}]]
		+	[[Category:Articles by {{{AuthorFullName2}}}]]
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−	~~----~~

−	* For other articles by this author see [[:Category:Articles by {{{AuthorFullName1}}}]]
−	* For other articles by this author see [[:Category:Articles by {{{AuthorFullName2}}}]]
−	* For other articles by this author see [[:Category:Articles by {{{AuthorFullName3}}}]]
−	* For other articles by this author see [[:Category:Articles by {{{AuthorFullName4}}}]]
	\|}		\|}

@@ Line 66: / Line 66: @@
 {{4Authorswithoutaccount
 |AuthorID1=18420
-|AuthorFullName1=Verleye, Thomas
+|AuthorFullName1=Verleye, T.
 |AuthorID2=16470
-|AuthorFullName2=Pirlet, Hans
+|AuthorFullName2=Pirlet, H.
 |AuthorID3=7075
-|AuthorFullName3=Lescrauwaet, Ann-Katrien
+|AuthorFullName3=Lescrauwaet, A.-K.
 |AuthorID4=48
-|AuthorFullName4=Mees, Jan
+|AuthorFullName4=Mees, J.
 }}

@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
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-Citation: '''{{{AuthorFullName1}}}, {{{AuthorFullName2}}}, {{{AuthorFullName3}}}, {{{AuthorFullName4}}}   ''' ({{REVISIONYEAR}}): ''{{FULLPAGENAME}}''. Available from http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/{{FULLPAGENAMEE}} [accessed on {{CURRENTDAY}}-{{CURRENTMONTH}}-{{CURRENTYEAR}}]
+Citation: '''{{{AuthorFullName1}}}; {{{AuthorFullName2}}}; {{{AuthorFullName3}}}; {{{AuthorFullName4}}}   ''' ({{REVISIONYEAR}}): ''{{FULLPAGENAME}}''. Available from http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/{{FULLPAGENAMEE}} [accessed on {{CURRENTDAY}}-{{CURRENTMONTH}}-{{CURRENTYEAR}}]
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	\|The main authors of this article are [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid={{{AuthorID1}}} {{{AuthorFullName1}}}], [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid={{{AuthorID2}}} {{{AuthorFullName2}}}], [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid={{{AuthorID3}}} {{{AuthorFullName3}}}] and [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid={{{AuthorID4}}} {{{AuthorFullName4}}}] Please note that others may also have edited the contents of this article.		\|The main authors of this article are [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid={{{AuthorID1}}} {{{AuthorFullName1}}}], [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid={{{AuthorID2}}} {{{AuthorFullName2}}}], [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid={{{AuthorID3}}} {{{AuthorFullName3}}}] and [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid={{{AuthorID4}}} {{{AuthorFullName4}}}] Please note that others may also have edited the contents of this article.
	----		----
		+
		+	Citation: '''{{{AuthorFullName1}}}, {{{AuthorFullName2}}}, {{{AuthorFullName3}}}, {{{AuthorFullName4}}} ''' ({{REVISIONYEAR}}): ''{{FULLPAGENAME}}''. Available from http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/{{FULLPAGENAMEE}} [accessed on {{CURRENTDAY}}-{{CURRENTMONTH}}-{{CURRENTYEAR}}]
		+
		+	----
		+
		+	* For other articles by this author see [[:Category:Articles by {{{AuthorFullName1}}}]]
		+	* For other articles by this author see [[:Category:Articles by {{{AuthorFullName2}}}]]
		+	* For other articles by this author see [[:Category:Articles by {{{AuthorFullName3}}}]]
		+	* For other articles by this author see [[:Category:Articles by {{{AuthorFullName4}}}]]
		+	\|}
		+

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 {| style="border:1px solid #abd5f5; background:#f1f5fc; margin:0em 0em 0em 5em;"
 |The main authors of this article are [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid={{{AuthorID1}}} {{{AuthorFullName1}}}], [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid={{{AuthorID2}}}  {{{AuthorFullName2}}}], [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid={{{AuthorID3}}}  {{{AuthorFullName3}}}] and [http://www.coastalwiki.org/imis/imis.php?module=person&persid={{{AuthorID4}}}  {{{AuthorFullName4}}}]
Please note that others may also have edited the contents of this article.
 ----

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 '''Compendium for Coast and Sea - creating a marine science-policy interface'''
-<div style="float:right; margin-left:10px">[[File:Compendiumcoastandsea.jpg|180px|right]]div>
+<p style="margin-top:-15px">
p>
 The Compendium for Coast and Sea is an integrated knowledge document about the socio-economic, environmental and institutional aspects of the coast and sea in Flanders and Belgium. As such, it constitutes a one-stop shop for data and information from the Flemish and Belgian marine and maritime research community and experts. The Compendium for Coast and Sea is an initiative of the Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ) and was developed in close collaboration with experts from the research community, government, industry and civil society organisations. The first version of the Compendium was launched in 2013, a second edition was presented in 2015.

@@ Line 14: / Line 14: @@
 |style="color:#000;"|
-{{Template:This_weeks_featured_article}} [[Fisheries_in_Blankenberge|'''More..''']]
+{{Template:This_weeks_featured_article}} [[Compendium for Coast and Sea - creating a marine science-policy interface|'''More..''']]
 |-

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:18, 6 April 2016
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−	Voor een uitgebreide achtergrond van dit oesterverhaal, ~~kan het~~ volgende ~~artikel~~ geraadpleegd worden:	+	Voor een uitgebreide achtergrond van dit oesterverhaal, kunnen volgende artikels geraadpleegd worden:

	* Pirlet, R., (2012) [http://www.vliz.be/imis/imis.php?module=ref&refid=222245 Historiek van de ‘Ostendaise’, een parel onder de oesters], ''De Grote Rede'' 34: 3-9.		* Pirlet, R., (2012) [http://www.vliz.be/imis/imis.php?module=ref&refid=222245 Historiek van de ‘Ostendaise’, een parel onder de oesters], ''De Grote Rede'' 34: 3-9.
		+	* Pirlet, R.; Haspeslagh, J.; Lescrauwaet, A.-K.; Seys, J.; Mees, J. (2015). [http://www.vliz.be/en/imis?module=ref&refid=249230 Historiek van de Belgische oesterkweek. De op- en ondergang van de legendarische 'Ostendaise'], in: Steevens, I. et al. (Ed.) (2015). Oesterpassie. pp. 50-65.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{featured}}
 The [http://www.compendiumkustenzee.be/en Compendium for Coast and Sea] is an integrated knowledge document about the socio-economic, environmental and institutional aspects of the coast and sea in Flanders and Belgium. As such, it constitutes a one-stop shop for data and information from the Flemish and Belgian marine and maritime research community and experts. The Compendium for Coast and Sea is an initiative of the Flanders Marine Institute ([http://www.vliz.be/ VLIZ]) and was developed in close collaboration with experts from the research community, government, industry and civil society organisations. The first version of the Compendium was launched in 2013, a second edition was presented in 2015.
@@ Line 23: / Line 25: @@
 * A manual with the most pertinent marine policy and legal instruments which apply to the Belgian part of the North Sea [http://www.compendiumkustenzee.be/en/integrated-marine-information-system?module=ref&refid=251201 Verleye, T.; Pirlet, H.; Lescrauwaet, A.-K.; Maes, F.; Mees, J. (Ed.) (2015). Manual: Marine policy instruments and legislation for the Belgian part of the North Sea 2015. Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ): Oostende. ISBN 978-94-920431-4-6. 128 pp.]
-All these products can be interactively consulted on the website www.compendiumcoastandsea.be http://www.compendiumcoastandsea.be:
+All these products can be interactively consulted on the website www.compendiumcoastandsea.be http://www.compendiumcoastandsea.be
@@ Line 49: / Line 51: @@
 # Military use
-The Compendium also includes an integrated chapter on the [[Scheldt Estuary]] and on marine data and information (data sources and data systems).
+The Compendium also includes an integrated chapter on the Scheldt Estuary and on marine data and information (data sources and data systems).